{"id":121,"date":"2015-06-28T15:51:00","date_gmt":"2015-06-28T19:51:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.ata-divisions.org\/JLD\/wp\/2015\/06\/28\/words-and-%e8%a8%80%e8%91%89-by-jim-davis-5\/"},"modified":"2015-06-28T15:51:00","modified_gmt":"2015-06-28T19:51:00","slug":"words-and-%e8%a8%80%e8%91%89-by-jim-davis-5","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.ata-divisions.org\/JLD\/2015\/06\/28\/words-and-%e8%a8%80%e8%91%89-by-jim-davis-5\/","title":{"rendered":"Words and \u8a00\u8449 by Jim Davis"},"content":{"rendered":"

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<\/span>This month we continue with Professor Davis’ series of examples illustrating how context provides essential information that can assist the Japanese-into-English translator in producing a translation that is complete, accurate, and natural sounding. In this installment: Example 7 – reaching for specific vs. general; and Example 7 – wanting to maintain vs. improve.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n
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<\/a><\/div>\n

Taken Out of Context:<\/span><\/b><\/div>\n
The Importance of Context in Japanese-into-English Translation<\/span><\/b><\/div>\n
(Part 4)<\/span><\/b><\/div>\n
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Example 7: Specific vs. general<\/span><\/b><\/div>\n
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The character <\/span>\u4e16<\/span> is most frequently associated with the specific concept of \u201cworld,\u201d but it can also carry a more general meaning: \u201csociety,\u201d \u201cera,\u201d \u201cgeneration,\u201d or \u201clifetime.\u201d The following sentence, taken from a book about the Japanese economy, contains the common phrase <\/span>\u4e16\u306e\u4e2d<\/span>:<\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
\u65e5\u9280\u306f\u8cc7\u91d1\u306e\u9700\u8981\u3068\u4f9b\u7d66\u306e\u30e1\u30ab\u30cb\u30ba\u30e0\u3092\u901a\u3058\u3066\u91d1\u5229\u3092\u30b3\u30f3\u30c8\u30ed\u30fc\u30eb\u3057\u3001\u4e16\u306e\u4e2d\u306e\u666f\u6c17\u3092\u8abf\u6574\u3057\u3066\u3044\u308b\u3002<\/span>   <\/span>(11)<\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
In this sentence <\/span>\u4e16\u306e\u4e2d<\/span> modifies the noun <\/span>\u666f\u6c17<\/span>. A student translated the sentence in this way:<\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
\u201cThe Bank of Japan controls interest rates by using the mechanisms of capital supply and demand, and through this regulates the economic conditions of the entire world<\/b>.\u201d<\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
The term <\/span>\u65e5\u9280<\/span> is a common abbreviation for <\/span>\u65e5\u672c\u9280\u884c<\/span> (the Bank of Japan), the Japanese central bank. This translation asserts that the Bank of Japan can, by virtue of its interest rate policy, regulate \u201cthe economic conditions of the entire world<\/i>.\u201d Not even the head of the Bank of Japan would claim that his institution has that much power. This assertion alone makes us return to the original sentence for a more careful examination. It appears that the student read the phrase <\/span>\u4e16\u306e\u4e2d<\/span> and thought that it was equivalent to <\/span>\u4e16\u754c\u4e2d<\/span>. The term <\/span>\u4e16\u754c\u4e2d<\/span> does indeed mean \u201call over the world\u201d or \u201cthroughout the entire world\u201d in the sense of our entire planet. However, the phrase <\/span>\u4e16\u306e\u4e2d<\/span> could mean \u201cthe world\u201d in the very vague sense of the comings of goings of the people around us, it could refer to \u201csociety,\u201d or it could mean \u201cthe times\u201d in the sense of the events that occur around some individual observer during a particular period in history. If we begin with the assumption that the Bank of Japan can only exercise direct control over economic events within Japan, and we recognize that a Japanese economist has written this book for a Japanese audience, we may safely conclude that <\/span>\u4e16\u306e\u4e2d\u306e\u666f\u6c17<\/span> refers to the Japanese economy or economic conditions within Japan. This leads us to the following translation:<\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
*** The Bank of Japan uses the mechanism of supply and demand of capital to control interest rates. In this way it regulates economic conditions\/the economy (around us)<\/b>. ***<\/span><\/div>\n
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This translation suggests that depending upon the way in which we integrate this particular sentence into the larger context of the paragraph in which it appears, it may not even be necessary to translate <\/span>\u4e16\u306e\u4e2d<\/span> explicitly. If we do decide to translate <\/span>\u4e16\u306e\u4e2d<\/span> at all, a vague sense of \u201cthe economy around us\u201d would be sufficient in this particular instance. This same Japanese phrase appears in two other sentences that appear in the same book:<\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
\u3057\u304b\u3057\u3001\u4e16\u306e\u4e2d\u306b\u306f\u3082\u3063\u3068\u69d8\u3005\u306a\u5f62\u614b\u306e\u91d1\u878d\u53d6\u5f15\u304c\u3042\u308b\u3002<\/span>   <\/span>(12)<\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
\u7269\u4fa1\u3068\u306f\u3001\u4e16\u306e\u4e2d\u5168\u822c\u306e\u4fa1\u683c\u52d5\u5411\u306e\u3053\u3068\u3060\u3002<\/span>   <\/span>(13)<\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
The subject of sentence 12 is <\/span>\u91d1\u878d\u53d6\u5f15<\/span>, and the setting for the main clause is simply <\/span>\u4e16\u306e\u4e2d<\/span>. A student translated this sentence as follows:<\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
\u201cThat said, the bank has financial dealings in a variety<\/i> of forms worldwide<\/b>.\u201d<\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
Sentence 12 appeared the same paragraph as sentence 11, although the sentences were not consecutive. The sentences between sentence 11 and sentence 12 dealt with purchases of Japanese government bonds by the Bank of Japan as a means to stimulate the Japanese economy. This student made the same error regarding <\/span>\u4e16\u306e\u4e2d<\/span> that a different student made in sentence 11. In addition, this student assumed that the Bank of Japan was the unstated topic of this sentence. In fact, there is no unstated topic; this sentence focuses on transactions, not the organizations that make such transactions. Because the subject (<\/span>\u91d1\u878d\u53d6\u5f15<\/span>) is \u201cfinancial transactions,\u201d the setting (<\/span>\u4e16\u306e\u4e2d<\/span>) is probably \u201cthe business world\u201d or \u201cthe world of finance.\u201d Thus, the intended meaning of sentence 12 would be more like this:<\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
*** However, in the business world<\/b> there exist financial transactions in a much wider variety<\/i> of forms. ***<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
Sentence 13 functions as a definition of the term <\/span>\u7269\u4fa1<\/span>, which is glossed in some dictionaries as \u201cprices\u201d and in some dictionaries as \u201ccommodity prices.\u201d However, in the business world and in the media the term \u201ccommodity prices\u201d normally refers to the prices of agricultural products and materials that are mined or otherwise extracted from the ground. Such products are frequently purchased in bulk by companies or traded on commodity exchanges. Examples of commodities include corn, wheat, crude oil, coal, iron ore, and bauxite. As sentence 13 indicates, the term <\/span>\u7269\u4fa1<\/span>carries a much broader meaning. A student translated this sentence as follows:<\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
\u201c<\/span>Commodity prices<\/span><\/b>, is the trend in the cost of everything in the world as a whole<\/b>.\u201d<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
There are two significant issues in this sentence: <\/span>\u7269\u4fa1<\/span> and <\/span>\u4e16\u306e\u4e2d<\/span>. In order to ensure the integrity of the entire sentence our translations for these two portions must be compatible. If <\/span>\u7269\u4fa1<\/span> is \u201cprices,\u201d then <\/span>\u4fa1\u683c\u52d5\u5411<\/span> could refer to \u201cthe trend in the cost\u201d in <\/span>\u4e16\u306e\u4e2d\u5168\u822c<\/span>. (In principle the word <\/span>\u4fa1\u683c<\/span> could be \u201ccost\u201d or \u201cprice.\u201d If we are defining \u201cprices,\u201d we cannot very well use \u201cprice\u201d in the definition. In this instance \u201ccost\u201d is the preferred alternative.) We typically monitor prices for an individual country or for a particular geographical region. Rather than the clearly defined meaning for <\/span>\u4e16\u306e\u4e2d<\/span> that we encountered in sentence 12, this sentence seems to favor the more vague sense (\u201caround us\u201d) that we observed in sentence 11. (This is consistent with the broad meaning of \u201cprices\u201d for <\/span>\u7269\u4fa1<\/span>.) If so, then <\/span>\u4e16\u306e\u4e2d\u5168\u822c<\/span> would mean \u201ceverything around us\u201d or \u201call of the items around us,\u201d and we could translate sentence 13 in this way:<\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
*** Prices<\/span><\/b> reflect the trend in the cost ofall the things we buy<\/b>.<\/span> ***<\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
If we think about the content of this sentence, we realize that another concept that is related to the trend in the cost of various items is the \u201ccost of living.\u201d If we rearrange the wording to incorporate this concept, we could translate sentence 13 as follows:<\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
*** The cost of living<\/b> reflects the movement of prices <\/b>for purchases (in general)<\/b>. ***<\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
In this instance the optional phrase \u201cin general\u201d provides the sense of scale or sense of scope that we obtain from <\/span>\u4e16\u306e\u4e2d\u5168\u822c<\/span> in the original sentence. Depending upon the overall flow of information in the paragraph from which the original sentence was taken, either the first or the second translation may be more suitable.<\/span><\/div>\n
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Example 8: Maintaining vs. improving<\/span><\/b><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
The word <\/span>\u6574\u5099<\/span> has two meanings. It could mean \u201cmaintenance,\u201d \u201cservicing,\u201d or \u201cupkeep\u201d in the sense of keeping machinery or facilities in good working order. It could also mean \u201cdevelopment,\u201d \u201cimprovement,\u201d or \u201cexpansion\u201d in the sense of enhancing the capabilities of machinery or facilities. A book about the Japanese economy contained the following passage:<\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
\u9032\u51fa\u5148<\/span><\/u>\u3067\u751f\u7523\u4f53\u5236\u3092\u6574\u5099\u3057\u3066\u3044\u304b\u306a\u3051\u308c\u3070\u306a\u3089\u306a\u3044\u3002\u5730\u57df\u3067\u6b53\u8fce\u3057\u3066\u304f\u308c\u3001\u884c\u653f\u306e\u5354\u529b\u3067\u6574\u5099\u304c\u9032\u3080\u3068\u3001\u3060\u3093\u3060\u3093\u3068\u751f\u7523\u304c\u8ecc\u9053\u306b\u4e57\u3063\u3066\u304f\u308b<\/u><\/a>\u3002<\/span>  <\/span> <\/span>(14)<\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
The term <\/span>\u6574\u5099<\/span> appears twice in this passage, which was part of a discussion of Japanese companies shifting production facilities from Japan to other countries in order to reduce operating costs. A student translated these two sentences as follows:<\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
\u201cIn the place of advancement<\/u> the company has to be maintaining<\/b>production systems. If it is welcomed by the region and maintenance<\/b> is progressing with the cooperation of the administration, eventually production will <\/span>become financially stable<\/u>.\u201d<\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
Keeping in mind that the passage pertains to the movement of production facilities, we realize that <\/span>\u9032\u51fa\u5148<\/span> must refer to the location to which the facilities have been moved or \u201cthe new location.\u201d Because this is a new location, the primary challenge for the company is to put into place a production system that operates efficiently and with the necessary level of quality. This suggests that the intended meaning of <\/span>\u6574\u5099<\/span> falls into the \u201cdevelopment\u201d category, rather than the \u201cmaintenance\u201d category. The final clause contains the phrase <\/span>\u8ecc\u9053\u306b\u4e57\u3063\u3066\u304f\u308b<\/span>, which the student translated as \u201cbecome financially stable.\u201d However, the direct object of the verb in the first sentence is <\/span>\u751f\u7523\u4f53\u5236<\/span>, and the subject of the second sentence is <\/span>\u751f\u7523<\/span>. This information suggests that the primary focus at this stage is on production, rather than profit. In this context the expression <\/span>\u8ecc\u9053\u306b\u4e57\u308b<\/span>corresponds to a phrase such as \u201cto get on track\u201d or \u201cto move ahead.\u201d If we put these ideas together, the translation for passage 14 could read like this:<\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
*** We must improve\/enhance\/upgrade<\/b> the production system in the new location<\/u>. If the new facility is welcomed in that locality and the improvement\/enhancement\/upgrade<\/b>proceeds with the cooperation of the (local) authorities, production will gradually get on track\/move ahead<\/u>. ***<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
Both general meanings for <\/span>\u6574\u5099<\/span> are widely used, and in this instance it is purely from the context that we are able to select the meaning intended by the original writer.<\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
Conclusion<\/span><\/b><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
In each of the above examples we relied upon context to make key decisions about the intended meaning of a word, a phrase, or an expression. Both the short-range context\u2014i.e., the text that preceded or followed the sentence in question\u2014and the long-range context\u2014i.e., the overall flow of information in the paragraph or document\u2014were used to select certain options or to discard other options when multiple meanings existed for specific terms. Many factors play a role in the creation of a translation that is complete, accurate, and natural sounding, but the importance of context cannot be overemphasized.<\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
Jim Davis is <\/span>Professor and Director of the Technical Japanese Program in the Dept. of Engineering Professional Development at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.<\/span><\/div>\n
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<\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

This month we continue with Professor Davis’ series of examples illustrating how context provides essential information that can assist the Japanese-into-English translator in producing a translation that is complete, accurate, and natural sounding. In this installment: Example 7 – reaching for specific vs. general; and Example 7 – wanting to maintain vs. improve. Taken Out […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_genesis_hide_title":false,"_genesis_hide_breadcrumbs":false,"_genesis_hide_singular_image":false,"_genesis_hide_footer_widgets":false,"_genesis_custom_body_class":"","_genesis_custom_post_class":"","_genesis_layout":"","footnotes":""},"categories":[8,29,21],"tags":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.ata-divisions.org\/JLD\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/121"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.ata-divisions.org\/JLD\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.ata-divisions.org\/JLD\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.ata-divisions.org\/JLD\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.ata-divisions.org\/JLD\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=121"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.ata-divisions.org\/JLD\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/121\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.ata-divisions.org\/JLD\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=121"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.ata-divisions.org\/JLD\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=121"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.ata-divisions.org\/JLD\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=121"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}